Leonard Munstermann
PhD, MA, BA
Senior Research Scientist in Epidemiology (Microbial Diseases); Affiliated Faculty, Yale Institute for Global Health; Head Curator of Entomology (Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History)
Research & Publications
Biography
News
Research Summary
Tools of molecular genetics focused on the insect vector provide clues to genomic organization, population structure and evolutionary relationships. Dr. Munstermann’s research emphasizes three genetic approaches: (1) Gene linkage mapping provides genetic backbone for isolating genes and macrogenomic evolution; (2) Genetic variability within an insect species in the form of isoenzymes or DNA base pair substitutions indicate population structure, population origin or taxonomic relatedness; and (3) Identification of closely related vector species by (biochemical) genetic means. Research organisms are Aedes mosquitoes and phlebotomine sand flies of New and Old World.
A long term research focus is the geographic distribution of the insect vectors and the association with disease transmission. Species distribution maps, correlation to environmental factors and location of disease cases form a data matrix analyzable in a Geographical Information System. To better predict risk of disease outbreak-knowledge of vector species involved, vector distribution, and vector competence is required. These have been applied in the Mosquitoes of Sardinia Project and the Biogeography of New World Sand Flies.
Specialized Terms: Molecular genetics; Insect vectors; Phlebotomine sand flies; Entomology; Phylogeny; Taxonomy; Speciation
Extensive Research Description
- Systematic Revision of the Genus Lutzomyia (400 species), New World Vectors of Leishmaniasis
- Insect biodiversity in tropical forests
- New Trap Methods for Insect Vectors
- Translating Research in Medical Entomology intoK-12 Curricula
- Epidemiological Interactions between Human,Sandfly, Reservoir Host and Parasite in a Novel Epidemic Situation of Cutaneous leishmaniasis.
Coauthors
Research Interests
Colombia; DDT; El Salvador; Entomology; Biological Evolution; Genetics; Guatemala; Honduras; Insect Vectors; Leishmaniasis; Leishmaniasis, Visceral; Malaria; West Nile virus; Global Health; Yellow Fever; Leishmaniasis, Cutaneous; Communicable Diseases, Emerging
Public Health Interests
Emerging Infectious Diseases; Evolution; Genetics, Genomics, Epigenetics; GIS/Disease Mapping; Global Health; Infectious Diseases; Malaria; Mosquito-borne Diseases; Toxicology; Vector-borne Diseases; Tick-borne Diseases
Research Images
Selected Publications
- Chapter 12 Phlebotomine Sand Flies and Moth Flies (Psychodidae)Munstermann L. Chapter 12 Phlebotomine Sand Flies and Moth Flies (Psychodidae) 2019, 191-211. DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-814043-7.00012-1.
- The Nesting ecology of social wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Vespinae and Polistinae) in northern MongoliaBatchuluun B, Dandarmaa B, Munstermann L. The Nesting ecology of social wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Vespinae and Polistinae) in northern Mongolia Mongolian Journal Of Biological Sciences 2018, 16: 49-58. DOI: 10.22353/mjbs.2018.16.07.
- An Alternative Approach: Teaching Evolution in a Natural History Museum Through the Topic of Vector-Borne DiseasePickering J, Fawcett L, Munstermann L. An Alternative Approach: Teaching Evolution in a Natural History Museum Through the Topic of Vector-Borne Disease Evolution: Education And Outreach 2012, 5: 62-67. DOI: 10.1007/s12052-012-0398-x.
- Phylogenetics of the Phlebotomine Sand Fly Group Verrucarum (Diptera: Psychodidae: Lutzomyia)Cohnstaedt LW, Beati L, Caceres AG, Ferro C, Munstermann LE. Phylogenetics of the Phlebotomine Sand Fly Group Verrucarum (Diptera: Psychodidae: Lutzomyia) American Journal Of Tropical Medicine And Hygiene 2011, 84: 913-922. PMID: 21633028, PMCID: PMC3110367, DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2011.11-0040.
- Leishmania (Viannia) Infection in the Domestic Dog in Chaparral, ColombiaSantaella J, Ocampo CB, Saravia NG, Méndez F, Góngora R, Gomez MA, Munstermann LE, Quinnell RJ. Leishmania (Viannia) Infection in the Domestic Dog in Chaparral, Colombia American Journal Of Tropical Medicine And Hygiene 2011, 84: 674-680. PMID: 21540374, PMCID: PMC3083732, DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2011.10-0159.
- Environmental Risk Factors for the Incidence of American Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in a Sub-Andean Zone of Colombia (Chaparral, Tolima)Valderrama-Ardila C, Alexander N, Ferro C, Cadena H, Marín D, Holford TR, Munstermann LE, Ocampo CB. Environmental Risk Factors for the Incidence of American Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in a Sub-Andean Zone of Colombia (Chaparral, Tolima) American Journal Of Tropical Medicine And Hygiene 2010, 82: 243-250. PMID: 20134000, PMCID: PMC2813165, DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0218.
- Population Genetics of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) Invading Populations, Using Mitochondrial nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Dehydrogenase Subunit 5 SequencesUsmani-Brown S, Cohnstaedt L, Munstermann LE. Population Genetics of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) Invading Populations, Using Mitochondrial nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Dehydrogenase Subunit 5 Sequences Annals Of The Entomological Society Of America 2009, 102: 144-150. PMID: 22544973, PMCID: PMC3337552, DOI: 10.1603/008.102.0116.
- Light-Emitting Diode Technology Improves Insect TrappingCohnstaedt LW, Gillen JI, Munstermann LE. Light-Emitting Diode Technology Improves Insect Trapping Journal Of The American Mosquito Control Association 2008, 24: 331-334. PMID: 18666546, PMCID: PMC2603179, DOI: 10.2987/5619.1.
- Estructura genética en cinco especies de flebótomos (Lutzomyia spp.) de la serie townsendi, grupo verrucarum, en Colombia (Diptera: Prychodidae)Hernández C, Ruiz-García M, Munstermann L, Ferro C. Estructura genética en cinco especies de flebótomos (Lutzomyia spp.) de la serie townsendi, grupo verrucarum, en Colombia (Diptera: Prychodidae) Revista De Biología Tropical 2007, 56: 1717-39. PMID: 19419077, DOI: 10.15517/rbt.v56i4.5755.
- Outbreak of West Nile Virus in North AmericaSpielman A, Andreadis T, Apperson C, Cornel A, Day J, Edman J, Fish D, Harrington L, Kiszewski A, Lampman R, Lanzaro G, Matuschka F, Munstermann L, Nasci R, Norris D, Novak R, Pollack R, Reisen W, Reiter P, Savage H, Tabachnick W, Wesson D. Outbreak of West Nile Virus in North America Science 2004, 306: 1473-1475. PMID: 15567836, DOI: 10.1126/science.306.5701.1473c.
- Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Phlebotomine Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in a Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Focus in Northern ArgentinaSalomn O, Wilson M, Munstermann L, Travi B. Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Phlebotomine Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in a Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Focus in Northern Argentina Journal Of Medical Entomology 2004, 41: 33-39. PMID: 14989343, DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585-41.1.33.
- Temporal and Geographic Genetic Variation in Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) from FloridaNayar J, Knight J, Munstermann L. Temporal and Geographic Genetic Variation in Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) from Florida Journal Of Medical Entomology 2003, 40: 882-889. PMID: 14765666, DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585-40.6.882.
- The Anopheles gambiae genomeMunstermann L. The Anopheles gambiae genome Biomédica 2002, 22: 453-4. DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.v22i4.1170.
- Temporal and Geographic Genetic Variation in Culex nigripalpus Theobald (Culicidae: Diptera), a Vector of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus, from FloridaNayar J, Knight J, Munstermann L. Temporal and Geographic Genetic Variation in Culex nigripalpus Theobald (Culicidae: Diptera), a Vector of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus, from Florida Journal Of Medical Entomology 2002, 39: 854-860. PMID: 12495183, DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585-39.6.854.
- Genetic Structure of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) Populations Based on Mitochondrial ND5 Sequences: Evidence for an Independent Invasion into Brazil and United StatesBirungi J, Munstermann L. Genetic Structure of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) Populations Based on Mitochondrial ND5 Sequences: Evidence for an Independent Invasion into Brazil and United States Annals Of The Entomological Society Of America 2002, 95: 125-132. DOI: 10.1603/0013-8746(2002)095[0125:gsoaad]2.0.co;2.
- Discovery, Distribution, and Abundance of the Newly Introduced Mosquito Ochlerotatus japonicus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Connecticut, USAAndreadis T, Anderson J, Munstermann L, Wolfe R, Florin D. Discovery, Distribution, and Abundance of the Newly Introduced Mosquito Ochlerotatus japonicus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Connecticut, USA Journal Of Medical Entomology 2001, 38: 774-779. PMID: 11761373, DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585-38.6.774.
- Wolbachia Infections of Phlebotomine Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae)Ono M, Braig H, Munstermann L, Ferro C, ONeilL S. Wolbachia Infections of Phlebotomine Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) Journal Of Medical Entomology 2001, 38: 237-241. PMID: 11296829, DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585-38.2.237.
- Distribution of Phlebotomine Sand Fly Genotypes (Lutzomyia shannoni, Diptera: Psychodidae) Across a Highly Heterogeneous LandscapeMukhopadhyay J, Ghosh K, Ferro C, Munstermann L. Distribution of Phlebotomine Sand Fly Genotypes (Lutzomyia shannoni, Diptera: Psychodidae) Across a Highly Heterogeneous Landscape Journal Of Medical Entomology 2001, 38: 260-267. PMID: 11296833, DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585-38.2.260.
- Genetic variability among populations of Lutzomyia (Psathyromyia) shannoni (Dyar 1929) (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) in ColombiaCárdenas E, Munstermann L, Martínez O, Corredor D, Ferro C. Genetic variability among populations of Lutzomyia (Psathyromyia) shannoni (Dyar 1929) (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) in Colombia Memórias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 2001, 96: 189-196. PMID: 11285496, DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762001000200010.
- Variation at isoenzyme loci among males and females of Lutzomyia shannoni (Dyar) (Diptera: Psychodidae) from ColombiaCárdenas E, Munstermann L, Ferro C. Variation at isoenzyme loci among males and females of Lutzomyia shannoni (Dyar) (Diptera: Psychodidae) from Colombia Biomédica 2000, 20: 300-7. DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.v20i4.1073.
- Reproductive biology of Lutzomyia shannoni (Dyar) (Diptera: Psychodidae) under experimental conditions.Cárdenas E, Ferro C, Corredor D, Martínez O, Munstermann L. Reproductive biology of Lutzomyia shannoni (Dyar) (Diptera: Psychodidae) under experimental conditions. Journal Of Vector Ecology 1999, 24: 158-70. PMID: 10672545.
- Interspecific hybridization and genetic variability of Phlebotomus sandfliesGhosh K, Mukhopadhyay J, Guzman H, Tesh R, Munstermann L. Interspecific hybridization and genetic variability of Phlebotomus sandflies Medical And Veterinary Entomology 1999, 13: 78-88. PMID: 10194753, DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2915.1999.00140.x.
- Genetic variability in biochemical characters of Brazilian field populations of the Leishmania vector, Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae).Mukhopadhyay J, Ghosh K, Rangel E, Munstermann L. Genetic variability in biochemical characters of Brazilian field populations of the Leishmania vector, Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae). American Journal Of Tropical Medicine And Hygiene 1998, 59: 893-901. PMID: 9886196, DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.1998.59.893.
- Epidemiology of endemic Oropouche virus transmission in upper Amazonian Peru.Baisley K, Watts D, Munstermann L, Wilson M. Epidemiology of endemic Oropouche virus transmission in upper Amazonian Peru. American Journal Of Tropical Medicine And Hygiene 1998, 59: 710-6. PMID: 9840586, DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.1998.59.710.
- Genetic polymorphism of morphological and biochemical characters in a Natal, Brazil, population of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae).Mukhopadhyay J, Ghosh K, Azevedo A, Rangel E, Munstermann L. Genetic polymorphism of morphological and biochemical characters in a Natal, Brazil, population of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae). Journal Of The American Mosquito Control Association 1998, 14: 277-82. PMID: 9813825.
- Life Cycle and Fecundity Analysis of Lutzomyia shannoni (Dyar) (Diptera: Psychodidae)Ferro C, Cárdenas E, Corredor D, Morales A, Munstermann L. Life Cycle and Fecundity Analysis of Lutzomyia shannoni (Dyar) (Diptera: Psychodidae) Memórias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 1998, 93: 195-199. PMID: 9698892, DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02761998000200011.
- Genetic structure of local populations of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae) in central Colombia.Munstermann L, Morrison A, Ferro C, Pardo R, Torres M. Genetic structure of local populations of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae) in central Colombia. Journal Of Medical Entomology 1998, 35: 82-9. PMID: 9542350, DOI: 10.1093/jmedent/35.1.82.
- Patterns of genetic variability in colonized strains of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae) and its consequences.Mukhopadhyay J, Rangel E, Ghosh K, Munstermann L. Patterns of genetic variability in colonized strains of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae) and its consequences. American Journal Of Tropical Medicine And Hygiene 1997, 57: 216-21. PMID: 9288819, DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.1997.57.216.
- Intraspecific variation in key morphological characters of Culiseta melanura (Diptera:Culicidae).Andreadis T, Munstermann L. Intraspecific variation in key morphological characters of Culiseta melanura (Diptera:Culicidae). Journal Of The American Mosquito Control Association 1997, 13: 127-33. PMID: 9249648.
- Care and maintenance of Aedes mosquito coloniesMunstermann L. Care and maintenance of Aedes mosquito colonies 1997, 13-20. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-009-1535-0_2.
- SYSTEMATICS OF MOSQUITO DISEASE VECTORS (DIPTERA, CULICIDAE):Impact of Molecular Biology and Cladistic AnalysisMunstermann L, Conn J. SYSTEMATICS OF MOSQUITO DISEASE VECTORS (DIPTERA, CULICIDAE):Impact of Molecular Biology and Cladistic Analysis Annual Review Of Entomology 1997, 42: 351-369. PMID: 9017898, DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ento.42.1.351.
- Estudio preliminar de los flebótomos de Villeta y Quebradanegra, Cundinamarca: sus implicaciones en salud públicaPardo R, Farieta S, Munstermann L, Ferro C. Estudio preliminar de los flebótomos de Villeta y Quebradanegra, Cundinamarca: sus implicaciones en salud pública Biomédica 1996, 16: 293-302. DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.v16i4.919.
- Medical Insects and ArachnidsMunstermann L. Medical Insects and Arachnids JAMA 1995, 274: 506-507. DOI: 10.1001/jama.1995.03530060082042.
- Unexpected Genetic Consequences of Colonization and Inbreeding: Allozyme Tracking in Culicidae (Diptera)Munstermann L. Unexpected Genetic Consequences of Colonization and Inbreeding: Allozyme Tracking in Culicidae (Diptera) Annals Of The Entomological Society Of America 1994, 87: 157-164. DOI: 10.1093/aesa/87.2.157.
- CHROMOSOMAL REPATTERNING AND LINKAGE GROUP CONSERVATION IN MOSQUITO KARYOTYPIC EVOLUTIONMatthews T, Munstermann L. CHROMOSOMAL REPATTERNING AND LINKAGE GROUP CONSERVATION IN MOSQUITO KARYOTYPIC EVOLUTION Evolution 1994, 48: 146-154. PMID: 28567783, DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1994.tb01301.x.
- Global Developments and Future Prospects in Medical EntomologyMUNSTERMANN L. Global Developments and Future Prospects in Medical Entomology Medical Entomology And Zoology 1992, 43: 365-366. DOI: 10.7601/mez.43.365.
- Population genetic evidence for species A, B, C and D of the Anopheles dirus complex in Thailand and enzyme electromorphs for their identificationGREEN C, MUNSTERMANN L, TAN S, PANYIM S, BAIMAI V. Population genetic evidence for species A, B, C and D of the Anopheles dirus complex in Thailand and enzyme electromorphs for their identification Medical And Veterinary Entomology 1992, 6: 29-36. PMID: 1600224, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2915.1992.tb00031.x.
- Morphological and Genetic Characterization of the Aedes (Ochlerotatus) communis Complex (Diptera: Culicidae) in North AmericaBrust R, Munstermann L. Morphological and Genetic Characterization of the Aedes (Ochlerotatus) communis Complex (Diptera: Culicidae) in North America Annals Of The Entomological Society Of America 1992, 85: 1-10. DOI: 10.1093/aesa/85.1.1.
- Population genetic analysis of host seeking and resting behaviors in the malaria vector, Anopheles balabacensis (Diptera: Culicidae).Hii J, Chew M, Sang V, Munstermann L, Tan S, Panyim S, Yasothornsrikul S. Population genetic analysis of host seeking and resting behaviors in the malaria vector, Anopheles balabacensis (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal Of Medical Entomology 1991, 28: 675-84. PMID: 1682492, DOI: 10.1093/jmedent/28.5.675.
- First record of Ascogregarina taiwanensis (Apicomplexa: Lecudinidae) in North American Aedes albopictus.Munstermann L, Wesson D. First record of Ascogregarina taiwanensis (Apicomplexa: Lecudinidae) in North American Aedes albopictus. Journal Of The American Mosquito Control Association 1990, 6: 235-43. PMID: 2370530.
- Linkage maps for 20 enzyme loci in Aedes triseriatus.Matthews T, Munstermann L. Linkage maps for 20 enzyme loci in Aedes triseriatus. Journal Of Heredity 1990, 81: 101-6. PMID: 2338488, DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a110937.
- Population‐genetic evidence for two species in Anopheles minimus in ThailandGREEN C, GASS R, MUNSTERMANN L, BAIMAI V. Population‐genetic evidence for two species in Anopheles minimus in Thailand Medical And Veterinary Entomology 1990, 4: 25-34. PMID: 2132966, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2915.1990.tb00256.x.
- Adult survivorship, population density, and body size in sympatric populations of Aedes triseriatus and Aedes hendersoni (Diptera: Culicidae).Walker E, Copeland R, Paulson S, Munstermann L. Adult survivorship, population density, and body size in sympatric populations of Aedes triseriatus and Aedes hendersoni (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal Of Medical Entomology 1987, 24: 485-93. PMID: 3625723, DOI: 10.1093/jmedent/24.4.485.
- The mosquitoes of Sardinia: species records 35 years after the malaria eradication campaignMARCHI A, MUNSTERMANN L. The mosquitoes of Sardinia: species records 35 years after the malaria eradication campaign Medical And Veterinary Entomology 1987, 1: 89-96. PMID: 2908760, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2915.1987.tb00327.x.
- Enzyme variation in some mosquito species related to Aedes (Ochlerotatus) stimulans (Diptera: Culicidae).Eldridge B, Munstermann L, Craig G. Enzyme variation in some mosquito species related to Aedes (Ochlerotatus) stimulans (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal Of Medical Entomology 1986, 23: 423-8. PMID: 3735350, DOI: 10.1093/jmedent/23.4.423.
- Cytogenetic and isozyme profile of Sabethes cyaneus: a mosquito of the neotropical canopy.Munstermann L, Marchi A. Cytogenetic and isozyme profile of Sabethes cyaneus: a mosquito of the neotropical canopy. Journal Of Heredity 1986, 77: 241-8. PMID: 2876025, DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a110229.
- Polytene chromosomes of Orthopodomyia pulcripalpis (Diptera, Culicidae).Munstermann L, Marchi A, Sabatini A, Coluzzi M. Polytene chromosomes of Orthopodomyia pulcripalpis (Diptera, Culicidae). Parassitologia 1985, 27: 267-77. PMID: 3870644.
- Identification by electrophoresis of Culex adults (Diptera: Culicidae) in light-trap samples.Corsaro B, Munstermann L. Identification by electrophoresis of Culex adults (Diptera: Culicidae) in light-trap samples. Journal Of Medical Entomology 1984, 21: 648-55. PMID: 6502621, DOI: 10.1093/jmedent/21.6.648.
- Electrophoretic differences in the isoenzymes of two mosquito gregarines, Ascogregarina barretti and A. geniculati.Rowton E, Munstermann L. Electrophoretic differences in the isoenzymes of two mosquito gregarines, Ascogregarina barretti and A. geniculati. Journal Of Parasitology 1984, 70: 63-7. PMID: 6429310, DOI: 10.2307/3281926.
- Ascogregarina geniculati sp. n. (Protozoa, Apicomplexa) from the Mosquito Aedes geniculatusMunstermann L, Levine N. Ascogregarina geniculati sp. n. (Protozoa, Apicomplexa) from the Mosquito Aedes geniculatus Journal Of Parasitology 1983, 69: 769. DOI: 10.2307/3281155.
- Egg and larval diapause in two populations of Aedes geniculatus (Diptera: Culicidae).Sims S, Munstermann L. Egg and larval diapause in two populations of Aedes geniculatus (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal Of Medical Entomology 1983, 20: 263-71. PMID: 6876090, DOI: 10.1093/jmedent/20.3.263.
- Ecological and genetic separation of three sympatric species of Aedes (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Kenya coastLounibos L, Munstermann L. Ecological and genetic separation of three sympatric species of Aedes (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Kenya coast Bulletin Of Entomological Research 1981, 71: 639-648. DOI: 10.1017/s0007485300010166.
- Distinguishing Geographic Strains of the Aedes atropalpus Group (Diptera: Culicidae) by Analysis of Enzyme VariationMunstermann L. Distinguishing Geographic Strains of the Aedes atropalpus Group (Diptera: Culicidae) by Analysis of Enzyme Variation Annals Of The Entomological Society Of America 1980, 73: 699-704. DOI: 10.1093/aesa/73.6.699.
- Genetics of Aedes aegyptiMUNSTERMANN L, CRAIG G. Genetics of Aedes aegypti Journal Of Heredity 1979, 70: 291-296. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a109261.
- Genetic Distinctness of Sympatric Forms of Aedes aegypti in East AfricaTabachnick W, Munstermann L, Powell J. Genetic Distinctness of Sympatric Forms of Aedes aegypti in East Africa Evolution 1979, 33: 287. DOI: 10.2307/2407619.
- Munstermann, L.E. Phlebotomine Sand Flies, the Psychodidae. In: Biology of Disease Vectors, 2nd Edition, Marquardt, W.C., Black, W.C., Freier, J., Hagedorn, H., Hemingway, J., Higgs, S., James, A.A., and Kondratieff, B., (Eds.) Elsevier Science, San Diego, California, 141-151, 2004.Munstermann, L.E. Phlebotomine Sand Flies, the Psychodidae. In: Biology of Disease Vectors, 2nd Edition, Marquardt, W.C., Black, W.C., Freier, J., Hagedorn, H., Hemingway, J., Higgs, S., James, A.A., and Kondratieff, B., (Eds.) Elsevier Science, San Diego, California, 141-151, 2004.