Benjamin Goldman-Israelow, MD/PhD
he/him/his
Assistant Professor of Medicine (Infectious Diseases)
Research & Publications
Biography
News
Research Summary
Our lab is focused on understanding the development of mucosal immune memory to emerging and endemic respiratory pathogens. Working through the lenses of natural infection and vaccination, the Israelow lab aims to identify signals that control mucosal memory immune responses to better understand the mucosal correlates of protection and transmission of these pandemic-associated pathogens. Our long-term goal is to leverage this research to develop the next generation of mucosal vaccines and therapeutics to combat current and future pandemics respiratory pathogens.
Current reasearch projects/interests
1) Defining the roles of innate immune signals within the respiratory mucosa which direct systemic and tissue-resident memory immune responses.
2) Harnessing systemic immunity to direct mucosal immunity to the respiratory tract.
3) Determining the immune correlates of SARS-CoV-2 and related coronavirus transmission.
4) Development of pan-coronavirus mucosal vaccine.
5) Development of mucosal vaccines against pathogenic respiratory viruses and other respiratory pathogens.
Coauthors
Research Interests
Immunity, Cellular; Immunity, Innate; Infections; Vaccines; Vaccines, Attenuated; Vaccines, Synthetic; Viral Vaccines; Virology; Virus Diseases; Zoonoses; Immunity, Mucosal; Communicable Diseases, Emerging; Infectious Disease Medicine; Adaptive Immunity; Immunity, Humoral; Pandemics; Vaccine-Preventable Diseases; Vector Borne Diseases; SARS-CoV-2
Selected Publications
- Unadjuvanted intranasal spike vaccine elicits protective mucosal immunity against sarbecovirusesMao T, Israelow B, Peña-Hernández MA, Suberi A, Zhou L, Luyten S, Reschke M, Dong H, Homer RJ, Saltzman WM, Iwasaki A. Unadjuvanted intranasal spike vaccine elicits protective mucosal immunity against sarbecoviruses. Science 2022, 378: eabo2523. PMID: 36302057, PMCID: PMC9798903, DOI: 10.1126/science.abo2523.
- Mild respiratory COVID can cause multi-lineage neural cell and myelin dysregulationFernández-Castañeda A, Lu P, Geraghty AC, Song E, Lee MH, Wood J, O'Dea MR, Dutton S, Shamardani K, Nwangwu K, Mancusi R, Yalçın B, Taylor KR, Acosta-Alvarez L, Malacon K, Keough MB, Ni L, Woo PJ, Contreras-Esquivel D, Toland AMS, Gehlhausen JR, Klein J, Takahashi T, Silva J, Israelow B, Lucas C, Mao T, Peña-Hernández MA, Tabachnikova A, Homer RJ, Tabacof L, Tosto-Mancuso J, Breyman E, Kontorovich A, McCarthy D, Quezado M, Vogel H, Hefti MM, Perl DP, Liddelow S, Folkerth R, Putrino D, Nath A, Iwasaki A, Monje M. Mild respiratory COVID can cause multi-lineage neural cell and myelin dysregulation. Cell 2022, 185: 2452-2468.e16. PMID: 35768006, PMCID: PMC9189143, DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.06.008.
- Inflammasome activation in infected macrophages drives COVID-19 pathologySefik E, Qu R, Junqueira C, Kaffe E, Mirza H, Zhao J, Brewer JR, Han A, Steach HR, Israelow B, Blackburn HN, Velazquez SE, Chen YG, Halene S, Iwasaki A, Meffre E, Nussenzweig M, Lieberman J, Wilen CB, Kluger Y, Flavell RA. Inflammasome activation in infected macrophages drives COVID-19 pathology. Nature 2022, 606: 585-593. PMID: 35483404, PMCID: PMC9288243, DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04802-1.
- Multiscale PHATE identifies multimodal signatures of COVID-19Kuchroo M, Huang J, Wong P, Grenier JC, Shung D, Tong A, Lucas C, Klein J, Burkhardt DB, Gigante S, Godavarthi A, Rieck B, Israelow B, Simonov M, Mao T, Oh JE, Silva J, Takahashi T, Odio CD, Casanovas-Massana A, Fournier J, Farhadian S, Dela Cruz C, Ko A, Hirn M, Wilson F, Hussin J, Wolf G, Iwasaki A, Krishnaswamy S. Multiscale PHATE identifies multimodal signatures of COVID-19. Nature Biotechnology 2022, 40: 681-691. PMID: 35228707, PMCID: PMC10015653, DOI: 10.1038/s41587-021-01186-x.
- High-affinity, neutralizing antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 can be made without T follicular helper cellsChen JS, Chow RD, Song E, Mao T, Israelow B, Kamath K, Bozekowski J, Haynes WA, Filler RB, Menasche BL, Wei J, Alfajaro MM, Song W, Peng L, Carter L, Weinstein JS, Gowthaman U, Chen S, Craft J, Shon JC, Iwasaki A, Wilen CB, Eisenbarth SC. High-affinity, neutralizing antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 can be made without T follicular helper cells. Science Immunology 2022, 7: eabl5652. PMID: 34914544, PMCID: PMC8977051, DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.abl5652.
- A humanized mouse model of chronic COVID-19Sefik E, Israelow B, Mirza H, Zhao J, Qu R, Kaffe E, Song E, Halene S, Meffre E, Kluger Y, Nussenzweig M, Wilen CB, Iwasaki A, Flavell RA. A humanized mouse model of chronic COVID-19. Nature Biotechnology 2021, 40: 906-920. PMID: 34921308, PMCID: PMC9203605, DOI: 10.1038/s41587-021-01155-4.
- A stem-loop RNA RIG-I agonist protects against acute and chronic SARS-CoV-2 infection in miceMao T, Israelow B, Lucas C, Vogels CBF, Gomez-Calvo ML, Fedorova O, Breban MI, Menasche BL, Dong H, Linehan M, Alpert T, Anderson F, Earnest R, Fauver J, Kalinich C, Munyenyembe K, Ott I, Petrone M, Rothman J, Watkins A, Wilen C, Landry M, Grubaugh N, Pyle A, Iwasaki A. A stem-loop RNA RIG-I agonist protects against acute and chronic SARS-CoV-2 infection in mice. Journal Of Experimental Medicine 2021, 219: e20211818. PMID: 34757384, PMCID: PMC8590200, DOI: 10.1084/jem.20211818.
- Longitudinal Immune Profiling of a Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Reinfection in a Solid Organ Transplant RecipientKlein J, Brito AF, Trubin P, Lu P, Wong P, Alpert T, Peña-Hernández MA, Haynes W, Kamath K, Liu F, Vogels CBF, Fauver JR, Lucas C, Oh J, Mao T, Silva J, Wyllie AL, Muenker MC, Casanovas-Massana A, Moore AJ, Petrone ME, Kalinich CC, Dela Cruz C, Farhadian S, Ring A, Shon J, Ko AI, Grubaugh ND, Israelow B, Iwasaki A, Azar MM, Team F. Longitudinal Immune Profiling of a Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Reinfection in a Solid Organ Transplant Recipient. The Journal Of Infectious Diseases 2021, 225: 374-384. PMID: 34718647, PMCID: PMC8807168, DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiab553.
- Reply to: A finding of sex similarities rather than differences in COVID-19 outcomesTakahashi T, Ellingson MK, Wong P, Israelow B, Lucas C, Klein J, Silva J, Mao T, Oh JE, Tokuyama M, Lu P, Venkataraman A, Park A, Liu F, Meir A, Sun J, Wang EY, Casanovas-Massana A, Wyllie AL, Vogels CBF, Earnest R, Lapidus S, Ott IM, Moore AJ, Shaw A, Fournier JB, Odio CD, Farhadian S, Dela Cruz C, Grubaugh ND, Schulz WL, Ring AM, Ko AI, Omer SB, Iwasaki A. Reply to: A finding of sex similarities rather than differences in COVID-19 outcomes. Nature 2021, 597: e10-e11. PMID: 34552250, DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03645-6.
- Adaptive immune determinants of viral clearance and protection in mouse models of SARS-CoV-2Israelow B, Mao T, Klein J, Song E, Menasche B, Omer SB, Iwasaki A. Adaptive immune determinants of viral clearance and protection in mouse models of SARS-CoV-2. Science Immunology 2021, 6: eabl4509. PMID: 34623900, PMCID: PMC9047536, DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.abl4509.
- Kynurenic acid may underlie sex-specific immune responses to COVID-19Cai Y, Kim DJ, Takahashi T, Broadhurst DI, Yan H, Ma S, Rattray NJW, Casanovas-Massana A, Israelow B, Klein J, Lucas C, Mao T, Moore AJ, Muenker MC, Oh JE, Silva J, Wong P, team Y, Ko AI, Khan SA, Iwasaki A, Johnson CH. Kynurenic acid may underlie sex-specific immune responses to COVID-19. Science Signaling 2021, 14: eabf8483. PMID: 34230210, PMCID: PMC8432948, DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.abf8483.
- Rapid, reliable, and reproducible cell fusion assay to quantify SARS-Cov-2 spike interaction with hACE2Zhao M, Su PY, Castro DA, Tripler TN, Hu Y, Cook M, Ko AI, Farhadian SF, Israelow B, Dela Cruz CS, Xiong Y, Sutton RE, Team T. Rapid, reliable, and reproducible cell fusion assay to quantify SARS-Cov-2 spike interaction with hACE2. PLOS Pathogens 2021, 17: e1009683. PMID: 34166473, PMCID: PMC8263067, DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009683.
- Author Correction: Delayed production of neutralizing antibodies correlates with fatal COVID-19Lucas C, Klein J, Sundaram ME, Liu F, Wong P, Silva J, Mao T, Oh JE, Mohanty S, Huang J, Tokuyama M, Lu P, Venkataraman A, Park A, Israelow B, Vogels CBF, Muenker MC, Chang CH, Casanovas-Massana A, Moore AJ, Zell J, Fournier JB, Wyllie A, Campbell M, Lee A, Chun H, Grubaugh N, Schulz W, Farhadian S, Dela Cruz C, Ring A, Shaw A, Wisnewski A, Yildirim I, Ko A, Omer S, Iwasaki A. Author Correction: Delayed production of neutralizing antibodies correlates with fatal COVID-19. Nature Medicine 2021, 27: 1309-1309. PMID: 34145437, PMCID: PMC8212078, DOI: 10.1038/s41591-021-01416-4.
- Diverse functional autoantibodies in patients with COVID-19Wang EY, Mao T, Klein J, Dai Y, Huck JD, Jaycox JR, Liu F, Zhou T, Israelow B, Wong P, Coppi A, Lucas C, Silva J, Oh JE, Song E, Perotti ES, Zheng NS, Fischer S, Campbell M, Fournier JB, Wyllie AL, Vogels CBF, Ott IM, Kalinich CC, Petrone ME, Watkins AE, Dela Cruz C, Farhadian S, Schulz W, Ma S, Grubaugh N, Ko A, Iwasaki A, Ring A. Diverse functional autoantibodies in patients with COVID-19. Nature 2021, 595: 283-288. PMID: 34010947, DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03631-y.
- Delayed production of neutralizing antibodies correlates with fatal COVID-19Lucas C, Klein J, Sundaram ME, Liu F, Wong P, Silva J, Mao T, Oh JE, Mohanty S, Huang J, Tokuyama M, Lu P, Venkataraman A, Park A, Israelow B, Vogels CBF, Muenker MC, Chang CH, Casanovas-Massana A, Moore AJ, Zell J, Fournier JB, Wyllie A, Campbell M, Lee A, Chun H, Grubaugh N, Schulz W, Farhadian S, Dela Cruz C, Ring A, Shaw A, Wisnewski A, Yildirim I, Ko A, Omer S, Iwasaki A. Delayed production of neutralizing antibodies correlates with fatal COVID-19. Nature Medicine 2021, 27: 1178-1186. PMID: 33953384, PMCID: PMC8785364, DOI: 10.1038/s41591-021-01355-0.
- Longitudinal immune profiling of a SARS-CoV-2 reinfection in a solid organ transplant recipient.Klein J, Brito A, Trubin P, Lu P, Wong P, Alpert T, Pena-Hernandez M, Haynes W, Kamath K, Liu F, Vogels C, Fauver J, Lucas C, Oh JE, Mao T, Silva J, Wyllie A, Muenker MC, Casanovas-Massana A, Moore A, Petrone M, Kalinich C, Cruz CD, Farhadian S, Ring A, Shon J, Ko A, Grubaugh N, Goldman-Israelow B, Iwasaki A, Azar M. Longitudinal immune profiling of a SARS-CoV-2 reinfection in a solid organ transplant recipient. Research Square 2021 PMID: 34013255, PMCID: PMC8132249, DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-405958/v1.
- Divergent and self-reactive immune responses in the CNS of COVID-19 patients with neurological symptomsSong E, Bartley CM, Chow RD, Ngo TT, Jiang R, Zamecnik CR, Dandekar R, Loudermilk RP, Dai Y, Liu F, Sunshine S, Liu J, Wu W, Hawes IA, Alvarenga BD, Huynh T, McAlpine L, Rahman NT, Geng B, Chiarella J, Goldman-Israelow B, Vogels CBF, Grubaugh ND, Casanovas-Massana A, Phinney BS, Salemi M, Alexander JR, Gallego JA, Lencz T, Walsh H, Wapniarski AE, Mohanty S, Lucas C, Klein J, Mao T, Oh J, Ring A, Spudich S, Ko AI, Kleinstein SH, Pak J, DeRisi JL, Iwasaki A, Pleasure SJ, Wilson MR, Farhadian SF. Divergent and self-reactive immune responses in the CNS of COVID-19 patients with neurological symptoms. Cell Reports Medicine 2021, 2: 100288. PMID: 33969321, PMCID: PMC8091032, DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100288.
- Diverse Functional Autoantibodies that Underlie Immune Perturbations in COVID-19Mao T, Wang E, Klein J, Dai Y, Huck J, Liu F, Zheng N, Zhou T, Goldman-Israelow B, Wong P, Lucas C, Silva J, Oh J, Song E, Perotti E, Fischer S, Campbell M, Fournier J, Wyllie A, Vogels C, Ott I, Kalinich C, Petrone M, Watkins A, Cruz C, Farhadian S, Schulz W, Grubaugh N, Ko A, Iwasaki A, Ring A. Diverse Functional Autoantibodies that Underlie Immune Perturbations in COVID-19. The Journal Of Immunology 2021, 206: 114.04-114.04. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.206.supp.114.04.
- Type I Interferon Shapes Humoral Immunity to SARS-CoV-2Goldman-Israelow B, Mao T, Song E, Lu P, Wong P, Lucas C, Klein J, Iwasaki A. Type I Interferon Shapes Humoral Immunity to SARS-CoV-2. The Journal Of Immunology 2021, 206: 114.07-114.07. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.206.supp.114.07.
- Neuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 in human and mouse brainSong E, Zhang C, Israelow B, Lu-Culligan A, Prado AV, Skriabine S, Lu P, Weizman OE, Liu F, Dai Y, Szigeti-Buck K, Yasumoto Y, Wang G, Castaldi C, Heltke J, Ng E, Wheeler J, Alfajaro MM, Levavasseur E, Fontes B, Ravindra NG, Van Dijk D, Mane S, Gunel M, Ring A, Kazmi SAJ, Zhang K, Wilen CB, Horvath TL, Plu I, Haik S, Thomas JL, Louvi A, Farhadian SF, Huttner A, Seilhean D, Renier N, Bilguvar K, Iwasaki A. Neuroinvasion of SARS-CoV-2 in human and mouse brain. Journal Of Experimental Medicine 2021, 218: e20202135. PMID: 33433624, PMCID: PMC7808299, DOI: 10.1084/jem.20202135.
- SalivaDirect: A simplified and flexible platform to enhance SARS-CoV-2 testing capacityVogels CBF, Watkins AE, Harden CA, Brackney DE, Shafer J, Wang J, Caraballo C, Kalinich CC, Ott IM, Fauver JR, Kudo E, Lu P, Venkataraman A, Tokuyama M, Moore AJ, Muenker MC, Casanovas-Massana A, Fournier J, Bermejo S, Campbell M, Datta R, Nelson A, Team Y, Anastasio K, Askenase M, Batsu M, Bickerton S, Brower K, Bucklin M, Cahill S, Cao Y, Courchaine E, DeIuliis G, Earnest R, Geng B, Goldman-Israelow B, Handoko R, Khoury-Hanold W, Kim D, Knaggs L, Kuang M, Lapidus S, Lim J, Linehan M, Lu-Culligan A, Martin A, Matos I, McDonald D, Minasyan M, Nakahata M, Naushad N, Nouws J, Obaid A, Odio C, Oh J, Omer S, Park A, Park H, Peng X, Petrone M, Prophet S, Rice T, Rose K, Sewanan L, Sharma L, Shaw A, Shepard D, Smolgovsky M, Sonnert N, Strong Y, Todeasa C, Valdez J, Velazquez S, Vijayakumar P, White E, Yang Y, Dela Cruz C, Ko A, Iwasaki A, Krumholz H, Matheus J, Hui P, Liu C, Farhadian S, Sikka R, Wyllie A, Grubaugh N. SalivaDirect: A simplified and flexible platform to enhance SARS-CoV-2 testing capacity. Med 2020, 2: 263-280.e6. PMID: 33521748, PMCID: PMC7836249, DOI: 10.1016/j.medj.2020.12.010.
- Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA by multiplex RT-qPCRKudo E, Israelow B, Vogels CBF, Lu P, Wyllie AL, Tokuyama M, Venkataraman A, Brackney DE, Ott IM, Petrone ME, Earnest R, Lapidus S, Muenker MC, Moore AJ, Casanovas-Massana A, Team Y, Omer SB, Dela Cruz CS, Farhadian SF, Ko AI, Grubaugh ND, Iwasaki A. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA by multiplex RT-qPCR. PLOS Biology 2020, 18: e3000867. PMID: 33027248, PMCID: PMC7571696, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000867.
- Sex differences in immune responses that underlie COVID-19 disease outcomesTakahashi T, Ellingson MK, Wong P, Israelow B, Lucas C, Klein J, Silva J, Mao T, Oh JE, Tokuyama M, Lu P, Venkataraman A, Park A, Liu F, Meir A, Sun J, Wang EY, Casanovas-Massana A, Wyllie AL, Vogels CBF, Earnest R, Lapidus S, Ott IM, Moore AJ, Shaw A, Fournier J, Odio C, Farhadian S, Dela Cruz C, Grubaugh N, Schulz W, Ring A, Ko A, Omer S, Iwasaki A. Sex differences in immune responses that underlie COVID-19 disease outcomes. Nature 2020, 588: 315-320. PMID: 32846427, PMCID: PMC7725931, DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2700-3.
- Mouse model of SARS-CoV-2 reveals inflammatory role of type I interferon signalingIsraelow B, Song E, Mao T, Lu P, Meir A, Liu F, Alfajaro MM, Wei J, Dong H, Homer RJ, Ring A, Wilen CB, Iwasaki A. Mouse model of SARS-CoV-2 reveals inflammatory role of type I interferon signaling. Journal Of Experimental Medicine 2020, 217: e20201241. PMID: 32750141, PMCID: PMC7401025, DOI: 10.1084/jem.20201241.
- Longitudinal analyses reveal immunological misfiring in severe COVID-19Lucas C, Wong P, Klein J, Castro TBR, Silva J, Sundaram M, Ellingson MK, Mao T, Oh JE, Israelow B, Takahashi T, Tokuyama M, Lu P, Venkataraman A, Park A, Mohanty S, Wang H, Wyllie AL, Vogels CBF, Earnest R, Lapidus S, Ott IM, Moore AJ, Muenker MC, Fournier JB, Campbell M, Odio CD, Casanovas-Massana A, Herbst R, Shaw A, Medzhitov R, Schulz W, Grubaugh N, Dela Cruz C, Farhadian S, Ko A, Omer S, Iwasaki A. Longitudinal analyses reveal immunological misfiring in severe COVID-19. Nature 2020, 584: 463-469. PMID: 32717743, PMCID: PMC7477538, DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2588-y.
- Mouse Model of SARS-CoV-2 Reveals Inflammatory Role of Type I Interferon Signaling.Goldman-Israelow B, Song E, Mao T, Lu P, Meir A, Liu F, Alfajaro MM, Wei J, Dong H, Homer R, Ring A, Wilen C, Iwasaki A. Mouse Model of SARS-CoV-2 Reveals Inflammatory Role of Type I Interferon Signaling. SSRN 2020, 3628297. PMID: 32714125, PMCID: PMC7366812, DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3628297.
- Hepatitis C Virus Indirectly Disrupts DNA Damage-Induced p53 Responses by Activating Protein Kinase RMitchell JK, Midkiff BR, Israelow B, Evans MJ, Lanford RE, Walker CM, Lemon SM, McGivern DR. Hepatitis C Virus Indirectly Disrupts DNA Damage-Induced p53 Responses by Activating Protein Kinase R. MBio 2017, 8: e00121-17. PMID: 28442604, PMCID: PMC5405228, DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00121-17.
- Viral Determinants of miR-122-Independent Hepatitis C Virus Replication.Hopcraft SE, Azarm KD, Israelow B, Lévêque N, Schwarz MC, Hsu TH, Chambers MT, Sourisseau M, Semler BL, Evans MJ. Viral Determinants of miR-122-Independent Hepatitis C Virus Replication. MSphere 2016, 1 PMID: 27303683, PMCID: PMC4863629, DOI: 10.1128/mSphere.00009-15.
- Hepatitis C virus genetics affects miR-122 requirements and response to miR-122 inhibitorsIsraelow B, Mullokandov G, Agudo J, Sourisseau M, Bashir A, Maldonado AY, Dar AC, Brown BD, Evans MJ. Hepatitis C virus genetics affects miR-122 requirements and response to miR-122 inhibitors. Nature Communications 2014, 5: 5408. PMID: 25403145, PMCID: PMC4236719, DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6408.
- HepG2 cells mount an effective antiviral interferon‐lambda based innate immune response to hepatitis C virus infectionIsraelow B, Narbus CM, Sourisseau M, Evans MJ. HepG2 cells mount an effective antiviral interferon‐lambda based innate immune response to hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 2014, 60: 1170-1179. PMID: 24833036, PMCID: PMC4176518, DOI: 10.1002/hep.27227.
- Temporal Analysis of Hepatitis C Virus Cell Entry with Occludin Directed Blocking AntibodiesSourisseau M, Michta ML, Zony C, Israelow B, Hopcraft SE, Narbus CM, Martín A, Evans MJ. Temporal Analysis of Hepatitis C Virus Cell Entry with Occludin Directed Blocking Antibodies. PLOS Pathogens 2013, 9: e1003244. PMID: 23555257, PMCID: PMC3605286, DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003244.
- High-throughput assessment of microRNA activity and function using microRNA sensor and decoy libraries.Mullokandov G, Baccarini A, Ruzo A, Jayaprakash AD, Tung N, Israelow B, Evans MJ, Sachidanandam R, Brown BD. High-throughput assessment of microRNA activity and function using microRNA sensor and decoy libraries. Nature Methods 2012, 9: 840-6. PMID: 22751203, PMCID: PMC3518396, DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.2078.
- HepG2 cells expressing microRNA miR-122 support the entire hepatitis C virus life cycle.Narbus CM, Israelow B, Sourisseau M, Michta ML, Hopcraft SE, Zeiner GM, Evans MJ. HepG2 cells expressing microRNA miR-122 support the entire hepatitis C virus life cycle. Journal Of Virology 2011, 85: 12087-92. PMID: 21917968, PMCID: PMC3209320, DOI: 10.1128/JVI.05843-11.
- Species-specific regions of occludin required by hepatitis C virus for cell entry.Michta ML, Hopcraft SE, Narbus CM, Kratovac Z, Israelow B, Sourisseau M, Evans MJ. Species-specific regions of occludin required by hepatitis C virus for cell entry. Journal Of Virology 2010, 84: 11696-708. PMID: 20844048, PMCID: PMC2977877, DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01555-10.